COMMUNICATION research methodology (CONTENT ANALYSIS, Discourse, semiotics FRAMING, EDITORIAL POLICY, AND ANALYSIS CORRELATIONAL)

Content Analysis
Content analysis (content analysis) is a research technique for making inferences - inference that can be replicated (replicable), and valid data context. Content analysis related to communications or content of communications. Basic logic in communication, that every communication always contains messages in the communication signal, either verbal or nonverbal. So far, meaning komuniaksi become very dominant in each communication event.
Actual communication content analysis very old age, as old as man. However, this technique panggunaan diintoduksikan under the name of a content analysis (content analysis) in research methods are not as old as the use of the term. His age in the practice of the use of content analysis kehiudupan Man occur because since there are people in the world, people are interdependent analyze the meaning of the communication is done between each other. The idea to make a content analysis research techniques instead emerged from the likes of Bernard Berelson (1959). He has put a lot of attention on content analysis.
Berelson defines content analysis to: content anlysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication. Berelson pressure is to make content analysis as a research technique that objective, systematic, and quantitative description of what appears in the communication. Despite the many criticisms that can be conveyed in respect of the development Berlson definition of content analysis to this day, but the record of the objective and systematic in analyzing the content of communications appear in communication, becomes very essential for the discussed today.
Content analysis can be in use in the quantitative and qualitative techniques, depending on which side the researchers used. In qualitative research, content analysis focused on how researchers view the content of communication keajekan qualitatively, the researchers explain how the content of the communication, reading symbols, explain the contents of the symbolic interactions that occur in communication.
Works great in a qualitative study on the use of content analysis as practiced by Max Weber in his book The proestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. In this work of Max Weber tried to determine what is in maknakan with the "Spirit of capitalism" terutapa of what was written by Benjamin Franklik. However, Weber more starts from concrete cases that aims to create the ideal types (ideal types) than produce an objective and systematic description of Franklin's writings. So, in characterizes the "Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism", then examine the contents of text Weber Franklin is ideal. This is done on purpose because Weber does not believe that the historical reality is as described in the ideal types are created, such ascetism, the rational organization of labor, and others.
In addition, the use of content analysis is no different from other qualitative research. However, because this technique can be used on different approaches (both quantitative and qualitative), then the use of content analysis depends on both approaches. The use of content analysis for qualitative research is not much different from other approaches. Beginning there must be communication phenomenon that can be observed, in the sense that the researcher must first be able to formulate exactly what you want to study and all of the first acts must be based on these objectives.
The next step is to choose the unit of analysis that will be tested, select the objects of research are being targeted analysis. If the research object associated with verbal data (this is commonly found in the content analysis), it is necessary to mention the place, date, and means of communication is concerned. However, if the object of research related to the messages in the media, is necessary to do the identification of messages and media that deliver the message.
The use of content analysis can be performed as pual W.Missing conducting a study on "The Voice of America". Content analysis was preceded by the coding of the terms or the use of words and phrases that are relevant, the most widely appeared in communication media. In the case of coding, it should also be noted that the context where the term appears. Then, the classification of the coding that has been done. Classification is done by looking at the extent to which satauan meaning flowering with the purpose of research. This classification is intended to build the category of each classification. Then, the unit of meaning and categories are analyzed and in relation to each other looking to find meaning, meaning, and purpose of the communication contents. The results of this analysis then described in terms of the draft report as general research study report.
Some Forms Classification
There are several forms of classification in the content analysis. Janis explains the classification as follows:

    Pragmatic content analysis, where the classification is done according to the sign of the possible causal. For example, how many times a word spoken that could lead to the emergence of attitudes toward products like toothbrushes A.
    Semantic content analysis, done to classify: sign according to its meaning. This analysis consists of three types as follows:

    Analysis appointment (designation), describe the frequency of how often certain objects (people, objects, groups, or concepts) are cited.
    Analysis penyifatan (attributions), describe the frequency of how often referred characterization (eg reference to the dishonesty, mischief, fraud, and so on).
    Analysis of the statement (assertions), describe the frequency of how often a particular object is characterized in particular. This analysis is roughly called thematic analysis. For example, a reference to the cheating behavior among students as a thief, a liar and so on

    Analysis means of signs (sign-vechile), performed to classify the content of the message through the psychophysical nature of the sign, for example, how many times a word appears gorgeous, sex word appears.
In qualitative research, the use of content analysis is more emphasis on how the symbols that exist on the communication reads in social interaction, and bagimana symbols are read and analyzed by researchers. And as other qualitative research, researchers kredebilitas becomes very important. Content analysis requires that researchers were able to use the sharpness of his analysis for the content of communication phenomena knit a social phenomenon that is read by people in general.
It is understood that the meaning of the symbols and the interaction is very complex so that the interpretation of a single symbol doubles the object is generally a common phenomenon in social research. Therefore, the analysis of the contents into a very big challenge for researchers themselves. Therefore, a basic understanding of the culture in which it occurs is very important communication. This culture into a broad estuary of the various forms of communication in society.
In qualitative research, especially in kualiatif verification strategy, data analysis technique is considered as a data analysis technique that is frequently used. But besides that, this analysis technique is seen as a data analysis technique most common. That is, this technique is the most abstract to analyze qualitative data. Content analysis departs from the basic assumption of the social sciences that study of the process and content of communication is the foundation of social science studies. Description provided by experts since Janis (1949), Berelson (1952) until Lindzey and Aronso (1968) on the Content anlysis, always featuring three conditions, namely: objectivity, systematic approach, and generalization.
Content analysis is often used in analyzes verification. How it works or logical analysis of the data was the same with most of the quantitative data analysis. Researchers begin their analysis by using certain symbols, classifying data with certain criteria and make predictions with specific analytical techniques as well. More clearly, flow analysis using Content Analysis Technique.

Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is a content analysis of more qualitative and can be an alternative to complete and cover the weaknesses of quantitative content analysis that has been widely used by researchers. If the quantitative analysis, more emphasis to answer the question "what" (what) of the message or text communication, more focused on discourse analysis to look at the "how" (how), ie how the text content of the news and also how the message was delivered.
Discourse analysis is a scientific study that used both in written and oral form. The use of natural language this means that the use of such language in everyday communication. Stubbs explained that discourse analysis emphasizes the study of the use of language in social contexts, in particular in the interaction between speakers. Similarly, suitable in this case states that it is a discourse analysis of studies focused on discourse, while the discourse is the language used to communicate. According to Stubbs (Arifin, 2000: 8).
Discourse analysis in Sobur (2006: 48) is the study of the structure of the message in the communication. More precisely, the study of the various functions (prakmatik) language. Studies on the wording of reality in a message not only what is visible in the text or tuklisan, situations and conditions (context) as the language uttered what would distinguish a subjective meaning or meanings in their perspective.
Crigler (1996) in Sobur (2006: 72) argues that discourse analysis is included in konstruktionis approach. There are two important characteristics of a constructionist approach, namely:

    Constructionist approach emphasizes the political meaning and process of how a person makes an overview of the political reality.
    Constructionist approach sees communication activities as a process of continuous and dynamic. From the source (communicator), constructionist approaches examine how the formation of the message is displayed, and on the receiving side he examines how individual construction when it receives a message.
Back in the real discourse anilsa trying to understand how reality framed, reproduced and distributed to the audience. This analysis work digging practices behind the language of the text to find the ideological position of the narrative and connect with a wider structure. Thus discourse analysis is one of the critical analysis model that enriches audiences view that there is a correlation between media products, economic and political. This linkage can be raised at the time of the analysis of discourse moves towards the question of how language works in a context and why the language used in a context, and not to other contexts.
Basically there are some fundamental differences between discourse analysis with quantitative content analysis is as follows. Qualitative discourse analysis is more common than in the quantitative content analysis for discourse analysis is more emphasis on the meaning of the text rather than the sum of unit categories, as in the content analysis. Quantitative content analysis is used to dissect the text payload communications that are manifest (real), whereas discourse analysis would focus on messages that are latent (hidden).
Quantitative content analysis can only consider the "what" (what), but can not investigate how it is said (how). Discourse analysis does not pretend to generalize, while the quantitative content analysis is directed to make generalizations.

Semiotic Analysis (Semiotic Analysis)
Definition of semiotics is the study of the terminology is extensive series of objects, events, across cultures as a sign. According to Eco, semiotic as "the science of signs" (sign) and everything connected with the functioning way, its relationship with other words, delivery, and acceptance by those who use it. According to Eco, there are nineteen field can be considered as material for the study of semiotics, the semiotic animal, semiotic signs smells, tactile communication, codes cecapan, paralinguistic, medical semiotics, kinesik and proksemik, codes of music, language formalized, written language, alphabet unknown, secret codes, natural language, visual communication, system objects, and so on Semiotics in the field of communication was also not limited to, for example, can only take the object of research, such as the news media, advertising communication, -sign nonverbal signs, movie, comic cartoons, and literature up to the music.
In this regard, a semiotic analysis is an attempt to study the linguistic-language and wider than it is all human behavior that brings meaning or function as a sign. Language is part of linguistics, and linguistics is part of the object studied in semiology. In addition to the language which is a representation of a particular object, a particular thought or a particular meaning, the object of semiotics also studied the problems of non-linguistic.
One conservative scholar describes the theory is RolandBarthes De de Saussure (1915-1980). He applied Ferdinand De Saussure models in research on -karya works of literature and culture phenomena, such as fashion apparel. For Barthes components - components marker signs - markers are also in sign language between lainterdapat -sign instead on the overall shape of the stem myths and beliefs dibentukmasyarakat image to memp-ertahankan and accentuate their identity (de Saussure, 1988).
Furthermore Barthes (1957 in de Saussure) using the theory of signifiant - signifie developed into a theory about metabaha sa and connotations. The term signifiant into expression (E) and signifie become the content (C). But Barthes says that between E and C must be a relation (R) ter-course, so as to form the sign (sign, Sn). The concept of this relationship makes the theory of signs are more likely to develop because of the relation defined by the user mark.
According to Barthes, the expression can flourish and form a new sign, so that there is more than one with the same contents. Developm-ment of symptoms is referred to as meta-language and form what is called synonymy (synonymy). Each sign is always obtain initial meaning known by the term denotation and by Barthes called the primary system. Then it is called secondary system development. Secondary system toward dise expression but metalanguage. Secondary system called connotation towards the content that is developing the content of an expression. The concept is based on the connotation is certainly not only by the understanding of cognition, but also by the understanding that users sign pragmatic and understanding the situation.

Various Semiotics
Until now, there are at least nine kinds of semiotic as we know it (Pateda, in Sobur, 2004). Type -type include semiotic semiotic analytic, descriptive, faunal zoosemiotic, cultural, narrative, natural, normative, social, structural.

   1. analytic Semiotics is a system that analyzes the semiotic signs. Peirce said that berobjekkan semiotic signs and analyzing become ideas, objects and meanings. The idea can be said to be a symbol, while the burden of meaning is contained in the symbol that refers to a particular object.
    2.Semiotik descriptive semiotic system that takes into account the natural sign that we can now even though there are signs that long ago remain as witnessed today.
    3.Semiotik faunal zoosemiotic is specifically take into hatikan semiotic system of signs produced by animals. A cultural semiotic semiotic system that specifically examines existing signs in the culture of the community.
    4.Semiotik narrative that discusses semiotic system of signs in a tangible narrative myths and oral Erita c (folklore).
    5.Semiotik natural or examine specific semiotic sign system produced by nature. Semiotic semiotic normative is devoted to a system of signs created by humans in the form of norms.
    Social 6.Semiotik is specifically examine the semiotic system of signs produced by humans in the form of symbols, both symbol and symbol of a series of words form sentences word. Structural semiotic semiotic signs that specifically examine the system that is manifested through language structure.